Vaccines The Success Story - 2322 Words

Vaccines: The Success Story On Saturday, October 24, 2009, Brandon Gonzales was a normal 9-year-old boy living a healthy lifestyle. However, by the end of the week Brandon was at the mercy of the H1N1 disease, otherwise known as the flu. He was delirious, lethargic, feverish, and breath constricted when it was found that his lungs were filled with fluid, and his oxygen levels had dipped down to 43%. After much ventilation and constant attention, Brandon’s kidneys collapsed, and the rest of his organs failed. He was pronounced dead at 12:46 pm on October 29, 2009 (â€Å"Brandon G’s Story†). The reason? Brandon had never received the flu vaccine. All of these troubles could have be erased, and this perfect boy saved, by a simple trip to the doctor for a vaccine. Therefore, all healthy children should be vaccinated because declining diseases still pose a public threat, and vaccines are safe, effective, and inexpensive. Of course, if any of the benefits are t o be understood, it is important to first understand how vaccines and the immune system works. When disease cells enter the body, the immune system creates proteins called antibodies. These antibodies detect the source of the disease cells and quickly travel to the site. When the antibodies arrive they hastily destroy the disease by engulfing the cells. In doing so, the antibodies create a memory of the disease. This memory is called immunity, and it allows antibodies to understand the disease so that next time,Show MoreRelatedPoliomyelitis in Nigeria1712 Words   |  7 Pages Introduction For Nigeria, the polio virus is still around in the country because of purely religious reasons. A section of the country, precisely the northern axis spurned a theory that the polio vaccine was fertility control tool of the west. Nothing could be further from the truth! But for intervention of senior clerics and prominent politicians from the area, there would have a standstill in the eradication efforts. To worsen matters, damage had been done by the time of the interventionRead MoreVaccines Prevent The Human Race1697 Words   |  7 Pagesâ€Å"Vaccines prevent an estimated 2.5 million deaths among children younger than age 5 every year, [however;] 1 child dies every 20 seconds from a disease that could have been prevented by a vaccine† (Global Health Security: Immunization). Providing immunity to human, vaccines have saved countless lives through one simple injecting and have eradicated many diseases that used be common among people. Vaccines is the solution and allo w us to be able to combat diseases that have overwhelmed humans for centuriesRead MoreRhetorical Analysis Of Immunizations : Victims Of Their Own Success By Tony Cappello966 Words   |  4 PagesWhat do all these celebrities have in common? All of them are anti-vaccine. The articles that I have found that relate to my field of study are â€Å"Immunizations: Victims of Their Own Success† by Tony Cappello and â€Å"Addressing the Anti- Vaccination Movement and the Roles of HCW† by S. Tafuri, MS Gallone, MG Cappelli, D. Martinelli, R Prato, et al. Both of these articles are trying to portray the importance of the importance of vaccines to everyone, ranging from parents all the way to health care workersRead MoreChildhood Inoculations974 Words   |  4 Pagesdiseases. The side effects from vaccinations are generally mild. They may include a sore arm or a low-grade fever, The National Vaccine Information Center (NVIC) promotes the rights of parents in the decision for childhood immunizations. They believe that there are significant risks that should be considered when facing the issue of immunizations. (National Vaccine Information Center, 2010) Some people believe that with the increase of vaccinations, we have seen an increase in diagnosis of symptomsRead MoreEssay on Polio an American Story by David M.Ochinsky1081 Words   |  5 PagesREVIEW POLIO AN AMERICAN STORY BY DAVID M.OCHINSKY PHAR 6605 Pharmaceutical Industry structure and government regulations PRESENTED BY: Asakiran Nadikatla PRESENTED TO: Gerard Cleaves Polio an American story is a scholarly readable and informative book which covers the lives of many American eminent scientists who struggled a lot to eradicate polio. This book mainly focuses on the mid twentieth century where the people are very eager to find a vaccine to eradicate polio .This bookRead MoreVaccines : The Greatest Medical Developments Of All Time1582 Words   |  7 PagesVaccines are arguably one of the greatest medical developments of all time. That being said, despite the amazing results they have shown against fighting disease, they have also encountered a great deal of controversy. In this paper, we will take a look into a few of the biggest obstacles vaccines have faced along the way. To date, the earliest recorded form of vaccination is believed to have occurred in China around 1000CE, when a young Chinese boy was inoculated against small pox by way of inhalingRead MoreVaccination Is Necessary For Every Child1382 Words   |  6 Pagesimmune namely HIV and of immunization that define the immune system of the child the quality of virus or bacteria to the child s immune system to build antibodies for each vaccine viral or bacterial and thus build a line of defense for the body immune against sudden some viruses and bacteria and Jratimha injury. This vaccine is a debilitating viruses or bacteria debilitating been Shell pathological have the ability, and therefore easier to give to a child so that his immune system to build antibodiesRead MoreThe HPV Vaccination Essay946 Words   |  4 Pagescurrent question on whether or not males should also be vaccinated. The issue is starting to play a huge role in the media; Fox news recently broadcasted a story on male HPV vaccinations. This story makes clear the benefits that would come from vaccinating males, including a statement from the Center for Disease Control that, â€Å"The HPV vaccine will afford protection against certain HPV-related conditions and cancers in males, and vaccination of males with HPV may also provide indirect protection ofRead MoreVaccines : Defense Against Disease Or Illness?1657 Words   |  7 PagesVaccines: Defense Against Disease or Initiators of Illness? Human beings are not invincible, for they are susceptible to things such as sickness, disease, and death. Throughout the years, humans have faced numerous outbreaks of different illnesses. In response to such outbreaks, people searched for ways to protect themselves. One protection method was vaccination. The creation of the first vaccine, the further development of common vaccinations, and the varied responses to vaccination have greatlyRead MoreVaccines Are Safe And Effective1361 Words   |  6 PagesIntroduction: Vaccines are attributed to saving millions of lives in the United States, yet many parents refuse to protect their child from potentially dangerous diseases. With the accessibility of technology, it is easy to see how the anti-vaccine movement can persuade parents, but many find out the hard way the lack of evidence to support this trend. By understanding the sole purpose and statistical evidence supporting the effectiveness of vaccines, one can conclude our world is a much better place

Sex Trafficking And The United States - 1158 Words

When looking for topics to research I wanted to do something that was a prominent problem in my hometown, which was Sex Trafficking (ST). Coming from Houston, Texas, Sex Trafficking is one of the major hubs in the United States. Houston’s main highway I - 10 is the main road used to travel these victims to state lines to get them out of the country. A better definition of sex trafficking is when someone uses force, fraud or coercion to cause a commercial sex act with an adult or cause a minor to commit a commercial sex act. A commercial sex act is a list of things known as prostitution, pornography, and sexual performance done in exchange for any item of value, such as money, drugs, shelter, food, or clothes( United Nations, In the United States alone 14,500 - 17,500 people are trafficked alone in the United States and 46% of it is from Texas. Most cases found on sex trafficking come from Women and Child, but there are a percentage of males that are trafficked, but because th e act makes most feel degraded they refuse to report it. The effects it has on victims is indescribable. Many programs were created and people were made available to help victims but still sometimes these victims do not get the closure they need. This topic is important because it is a worldwide social issue that destroys not only the person physically taken into the trafficking but everyone that is involved in saving that person. When choosing these two articles, â€Å"Sex Trafficking: Policies, Programs,Show MoreRelatedSex Trafficking And The United States1672 Words   |  7 Pageshuman sex trafficking, they think of heinous acts that take place in other countries where adults, children, girls and boys are exploited to perform sexual acts in exchange for money or goods against their will. They think it typically occurs in places that are less developed than the United States. However, the reality of this horrific crime is that it is taking place in the United States, and it oc curs more and more each and every day. Young girls are not solely the victim of human sex traffickingRead MoreSex Trafficking And The United States1405 Words   |  6 Pagesthat there were 4.5 million victims trapped in forced sexual exploitation, or sex trafficking, globally. Most would believe that this is a problem that does not occur in the United States, but they would be wrong. In 2007 alone, 14,588 sex trafficking cases were reported in the United States and the problem is only getting worse. This research paper will discuss multiple topics such as the definition of sex trafficking, recruitment and those at risk, where it occurs, organizations, consequences,Read MoreSex Trafficking Within The United States1355 Words   |  6 PagesBetween 14,500 and 17,500 victims are trafficked into the United States annually, and often, the average age of entry is thirteen to fourteen years old (Hodge, 2008). One victim recalls that her pimp, a man who controls sex workers and keeps the earnings, would take her and two other girls from the ninth grade out of school during lunchtime, have them do calls, and bring them back. She explains, â€Å"He knew how to read each girl—this one likes to party, that one needs a job, this one wants drugs.† ByRead MoreSex Trafficking Throughout The United States2098 Words   |  9 PagesSex Trafficking Introduction: When looking for topics to research I wanted to do something that was a prominent problem in my hometown, which was Sex Trafficking (ST). Coming from Houston, Texas, Sex Trafficking has the 2nd largest home in Houston. The main highway I - 10 is the main road used to travel these victims to state lines to get them out of the country. A better definition of sex trafficking is when someone uses force, fraud or coercion to cause a commercial sex act with an adult or causeRead MoreDomestic Human Sex Trafficking in the United States1300 Words   |  6 PagesDomestic Human Sex Trafficking in the United States Human sex trafficking and its sister category, Domestic Minor Sex Trafficking also referred to as DMST, (Kotrla,K. 2010) is the most common form of modern day slavery. In the United States there are an estimated 293,000 youth who fall under high risk factor or DMST (Walker-Rodriguez, A. Hill, R. 2011). Many men prey on the at risk youth to make a fortune for themselves. DMST exposes the youth to a life filled with violence, abuse that is bothRead MoreEssay on The New Slave: Sex Trafficking in America910 Words   |  4 PagesThe New Slaves: Sex Trafficking in America When most Americans hear the term ‘sex trafficking’ thoughts of helpless women and children in poor, developing, countries come to mind. However, most Americans would be downright shocked and dismayed to learn that many victims of sex trafficking reside right here in the United States. Moreover, many of the victims of sex trafficking in America were victimized by other Americans. This is a pressing national issue to which neither small, rural towns or largeRead MoreProstitution, The Act Of Prostitution1324 Words   |  6 Pages Prostitution, the act of â€Å"providing or receiving sexual acts, between a prostitute and a client, in exchange for money or some other form of remuneration† (Hock 557). The idea of exchanging sex for valuables has been seen since the beginning of human society; the first reported data about prostitution was reported around 3000 B.C.E in one of the first known civilizations, Mesopotamia (Caraboi and Fierbinteanu 362). Also, prostitution is often referred to as â€Å"the world’s oldest profession.† TodayRead MoreVictims of Trafficking Protection Act Essay1716 Words   |  7 Pagesfeature to the VTVPA is that the United States will penalize countries if they do not comply with the VTVPA (Holman, 2009). This is an imperative feature and I think that it should be implemented throughout every single piece of legislation that deals with trafficking. Countries should be held accountable if they do not comply. The only way that sex trafficking can be officially over is if every single country complies with all the legislation. The United States looks at six different factors whenRead MoreThe Problem Of Child Sex Trafficking1199 Words   |  5 PagesChild Sex Trafficking Have you ever walked into Wal-Mart and taken the time to look at the numerous pictures of missing youth that is plastered on the wall? When looking at how long they have been missing, it ranges anywhere from months to years. Looking at their age, both boys and girls, it is hard not to wonder if these kids are being trafficked. Child sex trafficking, also known as human trafficking, is a major issue that is not only plaguing the United States, but the world. ResidingRead MoreSex Trafficking : A Common Issue For A Long Time1394 Words   |  6 Pages Sex trafficking can happen everywhere. People do not even realize when it is happening. Someone could be living their life, just as they normally do, and decided to go to the mall. Sometimes they may not even know that a little kid is going to be kidnapped, and later raped. This is what sex trafficking is. Sex trafficking is commonly defined as when violence, drugs, lies, or any other form of coercion is used to force another perso n to have sex against their will. (Sex Trafficking in the U.S, 1)

Pathophysiology Associated With Disorder Symptoms †Free Samples

Question: Discuss About The Pathophysiology Associated Disorder Symptoms? Answer: Introducation The patient is suffering form mild and moderate levels of Alzheimers diseases. He is having memory loss and confusion. He is also having issues with recognition of family members and friends and had withdrawn him socially. He is also suffering from depression and therefore he is having a very low quality life. Alzheimers disease mainly affects three important aspects that are helpful in keeping the neuron healthy (Da Mesquito et al., 2016). They are the communication, metabolism as well as the repairs. There are many researchers who have stated that these disorders mainly arise when the important nerve cells of the brain stop working along with the losing of connections with other nerve cells ultimately resulting in death. It the destruction as well as the death of the mentioned nerve cells which become mainly responsible for the cause of memory failure, personality changes as well as problems in leading the daily activities of life (Wood et al., 2015). Researchers are of the opinion that the development of senile plaques precedes the onset of the disorder. Also the formation of neurofibrillar tangles, neuron loss and also synapse loss take place in association of the main progression of cognitive decline. In normal cases, the protein called tau which is responsible in binding with the microtubules of healthy neurons is responsible for stabilising the nerves. In case of the disorder, these tau proteins chemically change and thereby pairs with other threads of tau forming different tangles. These lead to formation of neurofibrillary tangles that affect the communication in between the neurons. These ultimately cause cell death (Kumar Singh, 2015). Also senile plaques which are also called the beta-amyloidal plaques and cerebro-cortical atrophy at the macroscopic level are also responsible for the sufferings of the patients. In case of Alzheimers patients plaques are mainly developed in the hippocampus which is a structure deep in the brain. This part is mainly responsible in encoding memories. Plaques also appear in other areas of cerebral cortex which mainly help an individual in thinking and also in decision making. Therefore it is seen in the case study, that the individual is suffering from memory loss symptoms largely. Tangles are also insoluble twisted fibres that build up inside the nerve cells that hamper the memory system of patients. A large number of studies have suggested that development of depression and also social withdrawal increases the chance of getting affected by dementia and Alzheimers diseases by many folds. Investigations which have been done by researchers show that depression is intricately linked with Alzheimers, the exact biological background is still under controversy but evidences available suggest that depressed people always produce hormone cortisol in high levels. This has negative effect on the part of the brain responsible for new learning as well as short term memory which is the hippocampus (Abolhassani et al., 2017). People like the patient in the case study who are depressed have higher level of cortisol that mainly is hormone related with stress response and also has a smaller hippocampus. Many others suggest that depression causes chronic inflammatory changes which dispose depressed patients to neurodegenerative disorders like Alzheimers disorder. As his own property was getting g divides, it might have lead him to depression and social withdrawal which h had caused him to suffer form Alzheimers as well. Pharmacologic management: The professional should keep in mind that Alzheimers diseases is a progressive diseases where the patient will continue to decline in function whether they are rerated or are kept without treatment. Therefore, pharmacologic management would be such that it would help to preserve and facilitate the remaining function of the synapse and allowing a higher level of function for a longer time rather than making goals of stopping the neuronal loss (Carbera et al., 2015). The later is simply not logical and will not bring any fruitful results. Slowing the decline will be beneficial for the patients and although the management would not fully cure him of the disorder but will help to slow down the process of degradation. One of the best treatment paradigms would be to avail for the cholinergic benefits. If the loss of acetylcholine is the main reason that results in defect of the primary neurotransmitter, then increment in its production and at the same time inhibiting destruction and also activating the receptors provide a beneficial therapy for slowing the decline (Wang et al., 2014). ACH breaks down in the synaptic junctions by acetylcholinesterase. By this breakdown prevention , medicines of this enzyme group can prevent destruction of ACH. Donepezil, rivastigimine and galantamine are important acetyl cholinesterase inhibitors who work in the same patterns. They have low incidence of serous reactions but they show various cholinergic side effects. These include anorexia, vomiting, nausea, and diarrhoea; however the patient develops tolerance to them over time. They help in improvement of cognition, global impressions, functions, disturbed behaviours and others. Instruments that measure the cognit ion power are the Mini-Mental State Examination, Alzheimer's disease Assessment Scale, Cognitive Section, Neuropsychiatric Inventory, Physical Self-Maintenance Scale and Instrumental Activities of Daily Living1 and others are also used (Varcolis et al. 2016). Vitamin E is also believed to mitigate the inflammatory response of the plaque formation in the brain. Memantine is a recently approved drug by NMDA antagonist. They basically interfere with the glutaminergic overstimulation causing excite-toxicity. By interfering with that of the excite-toxicity it affects the receptors of NMDA that takes part in memory processing and pathology of the disorder. The drug is found to be very effective in trials conducted by researchers and bring positive results in cognition, function and also in behaviour and global status. Pathology tests have showed that people who suffer from the disorders have microscopic inflammation in their brain and as a result anti-inflammatory agents are found to be useful in such a scenario. These often include diclofenac, rofecoxib, naproxen and also most recently ibuprofen. However, there are not many evidences which suggest the continuance of the medicines as protective agents for Alzheimers disorder. Herbal supplements are also said to be helpful for this disorder when used in conjunction of other prescribed therapies. The most frequent choice includes the use of ginko biloba which mainly act as a flavoglycoside in its pharmacologic effect. This mainly acts a s potent free radical scavenger and function as antioxidant. References: Abolhassani, N., Leon, J., Sheng, Z., Oka, S., Hamasaki, H., Iwaki, T., Nakabeppu, Y. (2017). Molecular pathophysiology of impaired glucose metabolism, mitochondrial dysfunction, and oxidative DNA damage in Alzheimer's disease brain.Mechanisms of ageing and development,161, 95-104. Cabrera, E., Sutcliffe, C., Verbeek, H., Saks, K., Soto-Martin, M., Meyer, G., ... RightTimePlaceCare Consortium. (2015). Non-pharmacological interventions as a best practice strategy in people with dementia living in nursing homes. A systematic review.European Geriatric Medicine,6(2), 134-150. Constantin, G. (2016). ROLE OF PERIPHERAL INFLAMMATION IN COGNITIVE IMPAIRMENT AND ALZHEIMERS DISEASE.Alzheimer's Dementia: The Journal of the Alzheimer's Association,12(7), P221. D Mesquita, S., Ferreira, A. C., Sousa, J. C., Correia-Neves, M., Sousa, N., Marques, F. (2016). Insights on the pathophysiology of Alzheimer's disease: the crosstalk between amyloid pathology, neuroinflammation and the peripheral immune system.Neuroscience Biobehavioral Reviews,68, 547-562. Kumar, A., Singh, A. (2015). A review on Alzheimer's disease pathophysiology and its management: an update.Pharmacological Reports,67(2), 195-203. Varcarolis, E. M. (2016).Essentials of Psychiatric Mental Health Nursing-E-Book: A Communication Approach to Evidence-Based Care. Elsevier Health Sciences. Wang, J., Yu, J. T., Wang, H. F., Meng, X. F., Wang, C., Tan, C. C., Tan, L. (2014). Pharmacological treatment of neuropsychiatric symptoms in Alzheimer9s disease: a systematic review and meta-analysis.J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry, jnnp-2014. Wood, P. L., Medicherla, S., Sheikh, N., Terry, B., Phillipps, A., Kaye, J. A., ... Woltjer, R. L. (2015). Targeted lipidomics of fontal cortex and plasma diacylglycerols (DAG) in mild cognitive impairment and Alzheimers disease: validation of DAG accumulation early in the pathophysiology of Alzheimers disease.Journal of Alzheimer's Disease,48(2), 537-546.

Chef Satisfaction free essay sample

The findings showed that employees’ job satisfaction directly and positively influences organizational commitment, but does not directly influence job performance. Employees’ job satisfaction enhances job performance only through organizational commitment. Internal marketing, empowerment and leadership also positively influence job satisfaction. Empowerment and leadership enhance employees’ organizational commitment. Internal job stress negatively influences employees’ job satisfaction and external job stress enhances employees’ job performance. According to the findings, this paper realized the main factors which influence hospitality industry employees’ job satisfaction, organizational commitment and job performance, which can function as criteria for human resource management in the hospitality industry. Key words: Hospitality industry, job satisfaction, organizational commitment, job performance.   With the change of the industrial structure in recent years, the output value of the service industry has become more than 70% of the GDP in most advanced countries (CIA, 2009). Thus, the service industry plays a significant role in national economic development. In 2008, as the world encountered a financial tsunami, the governments of different countries selected potential service industries and supported them with resources, in order to energize economic development. The hospitality industry is a typical service industry, and it is critical service industry around the world. In Taiwan, the scale of the hospitality industry has been increasing year by year. According to the Statistics Department, Ministry of Economic Affairs, in 2001 the business volume of the hospitality industry in Taiwan was NTD 261. 3 billion. In 2006 it passed NTD 300 billion and in 2009 it reached NTD 321. 7 billion. However, the hospitality industry refers to labor services and relies on manpower in areas such as production, delivery and restaurant service. Thus, the hospitality industry is mainly based on services. As mentioned in Bitner’s (1995) framework of the service marketing triangle, service providers play a critical role in the service industries. In service industry management, regarding the importance of employees, Heskett et al. (1994) proposed the framework of service profit chain. In the service profit chain, there are critical linkages among internal service *Corresponding author. E-mail: [emailprotected] tcmt. edu. tw. Tel: +886-2-28102292 ext. 5009. Fax: +886-2-2810-6688. Tsai et al. 4119 quality, employee satisfaction/productivity, the value of services provided to the customer, customer satisfaction and company’s profits. This chain shows that internal service quality can enhance employee satisfaction, which will enhance employee productivity and further result in external service value and enhanced customer satisfaction. Finally, the company can make a profit (Zeithaml et al. , 2009). Therefore, satisfied employees make satisfied customers. Service personnel satisfaction significantly influences organizational commitment and job performance on customer satisfaction and corporate operational performance (Ladkin, 2002; Dunlap et al. , 1988; Tansuhaj et al. , 1988; Chowdhary, 2003; Yang and Chen, 2010). How to enhance service personnel satisfaction, organizational commitment and job performance is a critical issue in service industry management. In past research on employee satisfaction, organizational commitment and job performance, many scholars (Babin and Boles, 1998; Bernhardt et al. 2000; Van Scotter, 2000; Koys, 2003; Testa, 2001) have validated that employees’ job satisfaction positively influences job performance and organizational commitment. In studies on factors of employees’ job satisfaction, job performance and organizational commitment, the service profit chain proposed by Heskett et al. (1994) and service marketing management model indica ted by Tansuhaj et al. (1988) on overall service industry both demonstrated that managements internal marketing activities produce job satisfaction and commitment to the organization. In addition, many studies have found close relationships between leadership, employee satisfaction, organizational commitment and job performance (Billingsley and Cross, 1992; Yammarino and Dubinsky, 1994; Burton et al. , 2002; Avolio et al. , 2004; Chen and Silverthorne, 2005). The above studies have mainly focused on the educational service industry, retail industry, manufacturing service industry, medical service industry and governmental institutions, but have not conducted indepth explorations on the hospitality service industry. Hopfl (1994) indicated that in the service delivery, firstline employees must be empowered to some degree in order to cope with customers’ special demands. Thus, job empowerment can be treated as important management to encourage first-line service personnel and immediately solve customers’ differential demands. Avolio et al. (2004), Caykoylu et al. (2007) and Chen et al. (2008) respectively conducted empirical studies on medical personnel and employees of the telecommunication industry, banking industry and postal industry, and found that empowerment positively influences employee satisfaction and organizational commitment. One issue worthy of further study is the extent of how empowerment positively influences hospitality industry employee satisfaction and organizational commitment. In addition, first-line employees face different customer demands and supervisor requirements, therefore job stress is a critical issue for them. Jamal (1990) and Jex (1998) suggested that reducing employees’ job stress could enhance employees’ job satisfaction and job performance. Williams and Cooper (2002) and Ouyang (2009) indicated that proper job stress would enhance employees’ job performance. In the hospitality industry, the influence of job stress from external customers and internal supervisors on employees’ job satisfaction and job performance is an issue worthy of further exploration. Based on the above, internal marketing, leadership, empowerment and job stress are possible factors of service industry employees’ job satisfaction, organizational commitment and job performance, and these factors are validated in various service industries. However, the outcomes in different service industries are not the same. For the hospitality industry, it is important to validate and analyze the influences of the above factors on employees’ job satisfaction, organizational commitment and job performance. Thus, this study intended to combine internal marketing, leadership, empowerment and job stress and proposed an integrated model of hospitality industry employees’ job satisfaction, organizational commitment and job performance. Hospitality industry employees in Taipei City were treated as the subjects, and the researcher probed into factors of hospitality industry employees’ job satisfaction, organizational commitment and job performance in order to function as criteria for management in the hospitality industry. LITERATURE REVIEW Job satisfaction The term â€Å"job satisfaction† was proposed by Hoppock (1935) who suggested that job satisfaction means employees’ emotions and attitude toward their jobs, and is their subjective reaction toward their jobs. The definition of job satisfaction is generalized into three categories: (1) Definition of generality: Job satisfaction refers to the affective reaction to one’s job as the most (Ozer and Gunluk, 2010). Job satisfaction, which is one of the most important necessities for an individual to be successful, happy and productive, is a feeling of satisfaction, that is, an outcome of the perception of what the job provides for an individual (Ay and Av aro lu, 2010); (2) Definition of difference: This refers to the degree of satisfaction and the difference between ndividual actual returns and required returns. For instance, Porter and Lawler (1968) suggested that the degree of satisfaction depends on the difference between a person’s actual returns and expected returns; (3) Definition of criterion framework: Peoples subjective perception and interpretation on objective traits of organizations or jobs would be influenced by individual criterion framework. According to Smith et al. (1969), job satisfaction is the outcome after a person interprets the job traits according 4120 Afr. J. Bus. Manage. o the criterion framework. The influence of certain work situations on job satisfaction is related to many factors, such as comparisons between good and bad jobs, comparisons with others, personal competency and past experience, etc. Job performance Kane and Lawler (1976) suggested that job performance refers to the record of the results when employees have practiced a job for a certain period of time. According to Schermerhorn (1989), job performance refers to the quality and quantity accomplished by individuals or groups after fulfilling a task. After a certain period of time, measurements of employees’ job performance could serve as criterion for promotions, wage adjustments, rewards, punishments and evaluations. Cascio (2006) suggested that managers must specifically define performance to allow the teams or employees to recognize the organizational expectations in order to fulfill the organizational goals. In other words, managers must set concrete goals, trace the fulfillment degree and evaluate the teams’ or employees’ performance. Van Scotter and Motowidlo (1996) suggested that employees with a high degree of job enthusiasm will demonstrate extra effort and devotion, and will actively seek out solutions to problems at work in order to enhance their job performance. Robbins (1998) divided the measurement of job performance into job result, job behavior and personal traits. Lee et al. (1999) divided job performance into efficiency, efficacy and quality. Efficiency refers to the employees’ output rate and is the ability to accomplish tasks before deadline. Efficacy refers to the employees’ goal accomplishment rate and proposals. Quality refers to the employees’ error rate and complaint rate, supervisor satisfaction, customer satisfaction and colleague satisfaction. This study suggested that in the application of this construct to measure hospitality industry employees’ job performance, efficiency should refer to the employees’ speed in customer service, efficacy should mean the accomplishment of tasks assigned by customers, and quality should mean the employees’ performance in customer service. As to measurement, Shore and Thornton (1986) indicated that self-evaluation allows individuals to participate in performance evaluation and serves as a criterion. Based on the above, according to the views of Lee et al. (1999), this study divided job performance into efficiency, efficacy and quality, and measured hospitality industry employees’ job performance using employee self-evaluation. Smith et al. (1969) proposed the Job Description Index (JDI) to measure job satisfaction, with the constructs including wage, promotion, job, supervisors and colleagues. Black and Gregersen (1997) found a positive correlation between job satisfaction and job performance. Organ (1990) suggested that when employees are satisfied with their work, they are willing to sacrifice themselves and devote to their organization. Organizational commitment From the perspective of attitude, Porter et al. (1974) indicated that organizational commitment is a person’s active and positive intention to identify with and internalize organizational goals and value. According to Reyes and Pounder (1990), organizational commitment is the strong belief and intention to identify with organizational value, devote to and stay with the organization. Mathews and Shepherd (2002) suggested that organizational commitment refers to workers’ attitude, behavior and connection between individuals and the organization. Guest (1995) indicated that organizational commitment is at the core of human resource management. It transforms traditional manpower management into the core of human resources. Organizational members’ attitude or intentions particularly indicate the importance of employees’ organizational commitment. Dee et al. (2006) suggested that organizational commitment is a person’s intention to devote to and be loyal to the organization. Lambert et al. (2006) suggested that organizational commitment is the structural phenomenon of trading between individuals and organizations. It increases with time, but it does not lead to a transferable investment outcome. Thus, in theoretical study and practical use, scholars have valued organizational commitment in human resource management. In recent years, many scholars have probed into organizational commitment from the view of Porter et al. (1974). Thus, this study also followed the above view and divided organizational commitment into value commitment, effort commitment and retention commitment. This study further treated these three constructs as criteria to measure hospitality industry employees organizational commitment. Definitions of these constructs are thus shown: (1) Value commitment: a strong belief and identification with organizational goals and values. 2) Effort commitment: the intention to devote more to the organization. (3) Retention commitment: a strong intention to continue being part of the organization. Internal marketing Internal Marketing (IM) is the process of handling staff as internal customers and projects as internal products that satisfy the needs and desires of the customers and adhere to the company’s goals (Berry and Parasuraman, 1991). Rafiq and Ahmed (1993) suggest that internal marketing involves â€Å"a planned effort to overcome organizational resistance to change and to align, motivate Tsai et al. 4121 nd integrate employees towards the effective implementation of corporate and functional strategies†. Joseph (1996) suggested that internal marketing is can be applied to marketing and human resource management, combining theoretical techniques and principles in order to encourage, recruit and manage all employees in the organization and constantly improve external customer service and mutual services. In addition, Ahmed et al. (2003) defined internal marketing as the emp loyees’ evaluation of the reward system, internal communication, training and development of the company. Internal marketing empirical research in the service sector has proven that internal marketing has influenced on internal customers (that is, employees) satisfactions. Berry and Parasuraman (1991) suggested that the advantages of internal marketing implementation in organizations are as follows: (1) To acquire and keep excellent talent; (2) to provide a common vision so that employees have job purpose and meaning; (3) to give employees the ability and knowledge to accomplish the work; (4) to encourage employees to share the results of teamwork; (5) to create job designs be based on the findings of marketing studies. The aforementioned views reveal that corporate implementation of internal marketing allows employees to enhance service quality, which increases the production and profits of the companies. The implementation of internal marketing in the organizations results in an internal service culture, raises service consciousness and increases profits (Parasuraman et al. , 1985). Based on the views of these scholars, internal marketing is critical for organizations and influences external marketing to further enhance customer satisfaction. According to the these definitions and based on the views of Rafiq and Ahmed (1993) and Ahmed et al. (2003), this study treated employee evaluations of reward systems, internal communication, and training and development of companies as criterion for measuring internal marketing of the hospitality industry. Leadership Leadership refers the process of influencing the team to accomplish the goals (Robbins and Coulter, 2005). Leaders are key success factors of an organization (Bass, 1985; Daft, 2002). Skillful leaders recognize and use the interpersonal relationships of the team and strengthen the members’ loyalty and morale. Effective leaders must learn skills such as patiently sharing information, trusting others and recognizing the timing of interventions (Steckler and Fondas, 1995). In recent years, numerous scholars have tried to discuss leadership from new perspectives. New studies of leadership theory have particularly stressed the influences of demands between leaders and subordinates, the interaction of personality traits and situational factors on leadership (Bargal and Schmid, 1989). Corporate leaders must select a proper leadership according to their subordinates’ different demands for supervision, in order to enhance employee satisfaction and fulfill expected goals. Bass and Avolio (1997) divided leadership into transformational leadership and transactional leadership. In transformational leadership, subordinates trust, respect and are loyal to their leaders. Leaders can develop their subordinates’ potential and enhance their confidence by changing their values and beliefs in order to increase their organizational commitment, intention and motivation to create exceptional outcomes. Transformational leadership can be divided into ideal traits, ideal behavior, the encouragement of inspiration, and the stimulation of wisdom and individual care. In addition, transactional leadership means leaders and members remain in the process of negotiation and mutual benefit instead of a persistent one-purpose relationship. Social exchange theory is treated as the theoretical base. When subordinates act according to their leaders’ expectations, they will have returns with a specific value. Transactional leadership can be divided into contingent rewards, and active and passive exceptional management. Most quantitative studies on leadership have created questionnaires using the MLQ scale designed by Bass and Avolio (1997). The MLQ scale includes two constructs (transformational leadership and transactional leadership). This study also designed a leadership questionnaire for the hospitality industry according to the MLQ scale. Empowerment Empowerment signals a transition away from traditional development that confined people’s role to that of passive recipients, effectively rendering them dependent on handouts in the form of foreign aid (O’Gorman, 1995). Bowen and Lawler III (1992) define empowerment as sharing with frontline employees four organizational ingredients: (1) Information about the organizations performance; (2) rewards based on the organizations performance; (3) knowledge about contributing to organizational performance; (4) power to make decisions that influence organizational direction and performance. Murat and Thomas (2003) suggested that empowerment does not simply refer to telling employees that they are empowered, but aims to allow the employees to recognize what power has been authorized. Boudrias et al. (2004) suggested that in managerial circles, empowerment application includes two types: (1) Empowering the responsibility of decision-making to subordinates while emphasizing rich work environments 4122 Afr. J. Bus. Manage. and diverse authority, information, resources and support, and providing the opportunity to learn in order to improve performance; (2) psychological empowerment, which refers to employees’ experiences of empowerment that are inferred as a mediating variable of empowerment and expected results. According to Sherman (1996), empowerment acknowledges that employees have the power to change in order to encourage employees to increase their competency. Kanter (1993) suggested that empowerment can keep employees from feeling helpless. Organizations could thus reduce negative effects such as low morale. The most significant effect of empowerment is to enhance employees’ abilities and self-efficacy (Conger and Kanungo, 1988). Bowen and Lawler III (1992) suggested the advantages of empowerment for organizations below: (1) To rapidly respond to customer demands and questions; (2) a high degree of employees’ job satisfaction; (3) positive interactions with consumers; (4) employees with creative thoughts; (5) the creation of loyal customers. About the definition of psychological empowerment, Spreitzer (1995) defines this concept as the psychological state that employees must experience for managerial empowerment interventions to be successful.